Ind AS is "converged" with IFRS, meaning it is largely based on IFRS but contains certain "Carve-outs" (deviations) to suit Indian economic and legal conditions.

The Going Concern assumption is fundamental to accounting. It implies the entity has neither the intention nor the need to liquidate or curtail materially the scale of its operations. This justifies charging depreciation over useful life rather than liquidation value.

Journal Proper is used for transactions that do not fit into special subsidiary books (like Cash Book, Purchase Book, Sales Book). Credit purchase of fixed assets (Furniture) goes to Journal Proper, whereas credit purchase of Goods goes to Purchase Book.

When you issue a cheque, you deduct it from the Cash Book immediately. However, the Passbook balance remains higher until the cheque is presented. To reconcile (match Passbook), you must add the amount back to the Cash Book balance.

In WDV method, depreciation is calculated on the reducing balance of the asset. Since the book value decreases each year, the depreciation amount also decreases, which matches the higher repair costs in later years.

Any cost incurred to bring a fixed asset to its working condition (like freight, installation, trial run) is capitalized (added to the cost of the asset) and treated as Capital Expenditure.

If the Credit side of Trial Balance is heavier, it means there is a shortage on the Debit side. The Suspense Account will have a Debit balance to balance it. Debit balances (if not expenses) are shown on the Asset side.

The Dual Aspect Concept states that every transaction has two effects: a debit and a credit of equal amount. This forms the basis of Double Entry Bookkeeping and the Accounting Equation.

When a bill is dishonoured, the holder gets it "Noted" by a Notary Public to establish legal proof of presentation and dishonour. This is the first step before "Protesting".

AS 11 prescribes how to account for foreign currency transactions and foreign operations. AS 10 is Property, Plant & Equipment; AS 3 is Cash Flow; AS 9 is Revenue Recognition.

Transactions are first recorded in the Journal (Original Entry), posted to the Ledger (Classification), summarized in the Trial Balance, and finally analyzed in Final Accounts.

A Contra Entry is recorded when cash is deposited into the bank or withdrawn from the bank for office use. It affects both Cash and Bank columns simultaneously on opposite sides.

Start: OD as per Passbook. Cheque deposited means Cash Book balance increased (OD decreased). Passbook hasn't changed yet (High OD). To match Cash Book (target), we must reduce the OD. But wait, logic check: Passbook OD is HIGH. Cashbook OD is LOW (because we assumed deposit). To go from Passbook to Cashbook, we must reduce the OD. "Less" in favorable balance logic means "Add" in Overdraft logic? Let's simplify. PB is -100. CB is -95 (cheque added). Start -100. Target -95. You must Add 5. Correct.

Depreciation does NOT cease when the asset becomes idle. It stops only when the asset's residual value equals its carrying amount, or it is derecognized.

It is revenue in nature (advertising) but the benefit is expected to last for more than one year (new product launch). Hence, it is deferred and written off over 3-5 years. Note: Modern standards (AS 26) are stricter, often forcing this to be expensed immediately, but traditionally in exams, it is Deferred Revenue.

Treating a Capital Expenditure (Machinery) as a Revenue Expenditure (Purchase A/c) violates accounting principles. Hence, Error of Principle.

IFRS are issued by the London-based International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to provide a common global language for business affairs.

Accrual basis records transactions when they occur (mercantile system), not when cash changes hands. This gives a truer picture of profit/loss.

In the Imprest system, the petty cashier is given a fixed float (Imprest amount) at the beginning. At the end of the period, they are reimbursed the exact amount spent to restore the float to the original level.

As per the Negotiable Instruments Act, 3 days of grace are allowed for bills payable "after date" or "after sight". They are not allowed for "On Demand" bills.

Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Capital. Therefore, Liabilities = Assets - Capital. 5,00,000 - 3,00,000 = 2,00,000.

Depreciation is for tangible assets. Amortization is for intangible assets. Depletion is for wasting assets (natural resources).

If a transaction is completely omitted (neither debited nor credited), the total debits and credits will still match, so the Trial Balance will tally despite the error.

Consistency ensures that financial statements are comparable over different periods. Frequent changes in methods (e.g., depreciation from SLM to WDV) distort comparison.

This is based on the principle of conservatism (Prudence). You anticipate losses (if NRV < Cost) but do not anticipate gains.

Trade discount is given at the time of sale to encourage bulk buying. Only the net amount (List Price - Trade Discount) is entered in the books. Cash discount, however, is recorded.

For the bank, customer deposits are liabilities (Credit balance). Therefore, a Debit balance in the Passbook means the customer owes money to the bank (Overdraft).

Maintenance is a recurring expense required to keep the asset in working condition. It does not increase the capacity or life of the asset, so it is Revenue Expenditure.

Accounting only records transactions that can be expressed in monetary terms. Crucial qualitative factors that affect business success are often not reflected in the books.

Accommodation bills are not backed by the sale of goods. They are drawn for mutual financial accommodation (to discount and raise money).

Depreciation spreads the "depreciable amount" over the useful life. Depreciable amount is Cost minus Scrap (Salvage) Value.

This is a one-sided error (casting error). The trial balance won't tally, and a Suspense Account is needed to balance it until the error is fixed. The others are two-sided errors.

Under Phase II of Ind AS implementation, unlisted companies with a net worth of ?250 crore or more are required to comply with Ind AS.

Journalizing is recording; Posting is the act of transferring the debit and credit aspects to the respective accounts in the Ledger.

Accounting should focus on information that is "material" (significant) to the user. For example, a calculator bought for office use is expensed immediately rather than depreciated over 5 years because the amount is immaterial.

Errors (Wrong total, Omission, Double entry) are mistakes. "Cheques issued but not presented" is a timing difference because the transaction is correct but recorded at different times by the firm and the bank.

Legal expenses incurred to acquire or defend the title of a fixed asset are capitalized as part of the asset's cost. Legal fees for debt recovery would be Revenue Expenditure.

Endorsement is the act of signing the instrument (usually on the back) for the purpose of negotiation (transferring title).

Book Value = Cost - Accumulated Depreciation = 1,00,000 - 40,000 = ?60,000. Sale Price = ?70,000. Profit = Sale Price - Book Value = 70,000 - 60,000 = ?10,000.

The Accounting Standards Board (ASB) constituted by ICAI formulates Accounting Standards. Ind AS are notified by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) based on ICAI recommendations.

Real Accounts relate to assets and properties (Tangible or Intangible). Cash is a tangible asset. Salary is Nominal (Expense). Ram is Personal. Overdraft is Personal (Liability).

Compensating errors occur when one error's effect is nullified by another error (e.g., Overcasting Purchase book by 100 and Sales book by 100). The Trial Balance still tallies.

Cash column represents physical cash in hand. Since you cannot pay out more cash than you have, the cash balance can never be negative (Credit). It is always Debit or Nil.

Direct deposit increases the Passbook balance. The Cash Book balance is lower because the accountant doesn't know yet. To match the Cash Book with the Passbook (Target), we must ADD the amount.

Repairs on a second-hand machine *before* it is put to use are capitalized because they are necessary to bring the asset into working condition.

The Drawer makes the bill; the Drawee (debtor) is the one directed to pay; the Payee receives the money.

Conservatism states: "Anticipate no profit, but provide for all possible losses." Creating a provision for bad debts anticipates a future loss.

Depreciation allocation is based on Cost, Useful Life, and Scrap Value. It is a systematic allocation of cost, not a valuation process based on daily market price changes.

To avoid distorting the current year's profit with last year's errors, nominal account corrections are routed through the P&L Adjustment Account.

Profit belongs to the owner. Therefore, Net Profit is added to the Capital at the end of the year, increasing the owner's equity.

AS 1 requires enterprises to disclose the significant accounting policies followed in preparing and presenting financial statements.

Transactions are recorded chronologically in the Journal first, hence it is the Book of Original Entry. The Ledger is the Book of Final Entry.

Sales Book records only CREDIT sales of GOODS (inventory). Cash sales go to Cash Book. Asset sales go to Journal Proper.

When deposited, Cash Book was increased. Dishonour means Passbook did not increase (or increased and decreased). Since Cash Book is still high, we must Subtract the amount to match Passbook.

SYD = n(n+1)/2. For 3 years, 1+2+3 = 6. Depreciation fractions will be 3/6, 2/6, 1/6.

Installation wages are a Capital Expenditure as they are necessary to bring the asset to use. Hence, they are added to the cost of the Machine.

Noting Charges are paid by the holder initially but are ultimately recoverable from the drawee (who dishonoured the bill).

Revenue is considered realized when the title of goods passes to the buyer, creating a legal obligation to pay. Cash receipt is not necessary.

The Journal Proper is the residual book of original entry used for Opening, Closing, Transfer, and Rectification entries.

Recording in Journal/Subsidiary book but failing to post to Ledger is Partial Omission. It affects the Trial Balance agreement.

According to Accounting Standards (AS 26 / Ind AS 38), research costs are expensed (Revenue) as incurred. Development costs can be capitalized (Capital) only if technical and commercial feasibility is demonstrated.

Under revised standards (Ind AS 8 / AS 10 Revised), a change in depreciation method is considered a "Change in Accounting Estimate" and is applied prospectively (for future periods), not retrospectively.

A wrong credit by the bank increases the Passbook balance. To reconcile the Cash Book with the Passbook (target), we must ADD the amount to the Cash Book balance, even though it is an error.

Monetary items (money held and assets/liabilities to be received/paid in fixed money amounts) must be translated at the Closing Rate. Exchange differences are recognized in P&L.

Retiring a bill under rebate means paying early. The rebate received is a Gain for the drawee (payer), so it is Credited. (For the holder/receiver, it is an Expense/Debit).

Unlike traditional Indian GAAP, Ind AS requires a separate statement detailing the movement in Equity (Share Capital + Other Equity like Reserves) during the year.

Treating a Revenue expense (Repair) as a Capital asset (Machinery) violates accounting principles. Others are Errors of Commission or Omission.

LFAR is a detailed questionnaire-based report covering various aspects of branch operations (Cash, Credit, Forex, Housekeeping). It is a critical tool for the Management and RBI to assess the bank's health.

This concept is the foundation of the Double Entry System. Accounting Equation (Assets = Liabilities + Equity) is derived from this.

Real accounts represent assets. An asset cannot have a negative value. Hence, the Debit side (inflow/value) is always greater than or equal to the Credit side (outflow/sale), resulting in a Debit Balance.

In this method, the Cash Book balance is first updated for items like Bank Charges, Interest, etc., which the bank has already passed. The BRS is then prepared only for timing differences (Cheques issued/deposited).

In this method, the depreciation amount is invested in outside securities. The interest earned and the annual provisions accumulate to provide enough cash to replace the asset when it is scrapped.

This is a tricky one. Legal costs to acquire an asset are Capital. Legal costs to maintain/defend the title of an existing asset are Revenue Expenditure, as they are for maintenance of the asset's status, not improvement.

Insolvency implies inability to pay. When the drawee is declared insolvent, the bill is automatically treated as dishonoured, and the holder can claim the amount (dividend) from the drawee's estate.

Ind AS 16 prescribes the accounting treatment for Property, Plant and Equipment (Fixed Assets), including recognition, measurement, and depreciation.

Since the business and owner are separate entities, the money given by the owner to the business is a claim the owner has on the business, hence a Liability (Internal Liability).

This is a double whammy. Sales Return should decrease Sales (reducing profit). Purchase (Debit) increases Cost (reducing profit). You wrongly increased Cost instead of reducing Sales. Both actions reduce profit. Wait. Sales Return (Debit). Purchase (Debit). You Debited Purchase instead of Sales Return. Debit side of Trading A/c increased by 500 (Purchase) instead of Debit side increasing by 500 (Sales Return). The effect on Gross Profit is... the same? Let's re-evaluate. Correct entry: Debit Sales Return. Wrong entry: Debit Purchase. Both reduce GP by 500. So GP is correct? No, Sales Return reduces Sales. Purchase increases Cost. Both reduce GP. If I debit Purchase for 500, GP reduces by 500. If I debit Sales Return, Sales reduces, GP reduces by 500. So the error has NO effect on GP. Wait, "Posted to debit of Purchase". Sales Return is also a debit. You put a debit in the wrong debit account. Nominal accounts affect profit. Since both accounts reduce profit, the profit remains Understated by 500 (the intended amount). But if you omitted Sales Return AND added Purchase, it's double. Here, you just swapped. So GP is correct. Let's assume the question implies "Sales Return treated as Purchase". Correct effect: -Sales. Wrong effect: +Purchase. Profit = Sales - Purchase. If Sales down 500, Profit down 500. If Purchase up 500, Profit down 500. So the effect is identical. Answer: No effect/Correct? Ah, usually these questions imply "Sales Return Omitted AND Purchase Recorded". If just misposted between two expense/revenue reduction accounts, impact is nil. Let's assume the option "Understated by 1000" is the trap and "No change" isn't there. Let's look closer. Sales Return reduces Sales. Purchase increases Purchases. Both reduce Gross Profit. So if you debit Purchase INSTEAD of Sales Return, you are still reducing GP by 500. So GP is stated correctly (relative to the error). However, if the question means "Sales Return was ignored and Purchase was recorded", then GP is understated by 500 (for the purchase) and overstated by 500 (for missing sales return)? No. Missing sales return means Sales is high -> Profit High. Recording Purchase means Cost High -> Profit Low. Net effect zero. Okay, let's change the question to something clearer. "Sales of 500 recorded as Purchase". Sales (Credit) omitted, Purchase (Debit) recorded. Profit reduces by 500 (Purchase) and reduces by 500 (Missing Sales). Total Understated by 1000. Yes, let's go with "Sales recorded as Purchase".

While PAN is mandatory for many financial transactions (Income Tax purpose), it is technically NOT in the list of 6 OVDs for "Proof of Address" in KYC norms because it does not contain an address.

As per IRAC norms, an asset becomes Non-Performing if it remains overdue for a period of more than 90 days.

For NIFO, assets and liabilities (both monetary and non-monetary) are translated at the Closing Rate because the investment is treated as a net investment. For Integral Operations, non-monetary items use Historical Rate.

Cash basis records transactions only when cash flows. Expenses incurred but not paid (outstanding) are ignored until paid. Accrual basis records them.

Abnormal losses like fire or theft are adjusting entries that don't fit in special journals. Entry: Loss by Fire A/c Dr to Purchase A/c. This goes to Journal Proper.

Bank has reduced the balance (Passbook down). Cash Book is higher. To match Passbook, Subtract from Cash Book.

Useful life is an economic estimate, not necessarily physical life. A computer may work for 10 years (physical) but be useful to a tech company for only 3 years (economic).

If an expenditure increases the future economic benefits (efficiency, capacity, life) beyond the previously assessed standard of performance, it is Capital.

The holder pays the notary initially, but since the dishonour was the drawee's fault, the expense is recoverable from the Drawee.

GAAP refers to a common set of accounting principles, standards, and procedures that companies must follow when compiling their financial statements.

Though the pen is an asset, its cost is immaterial. Tracking its depreciation is not worth the effort. Hence, Materiality allows it to be expensed.

Debit is short. To balance the TB, we need an item on the Debit side. So, Suspense A/c is debited with ?500.

Concurrent audit is a continuous audit aimed at detecting anomalies and irregularities in transactions as they happen (or very soon after), ensuring compliance.

Realization usually occurs when goods are transferred to the buyer, transferring risks and rewards. This creates the legal right to receive payment.

Obsolescence is a functional loss of value. Even if a machine is physically perfect, it may become obsolete if a newer, more efficient machine enters the market.

Debit in Cash Book = Asset (Money we have). Credit in Pass Book = Liability for Bank (Bank owes us money). They are opposite.

As per AS 11, forward contracts should be recorded at inception. The premium/discount is amortized over the life of the contract.

Parts are sent via different routes/mails. As soon as one part is accepted/paid, the others become void. This ensures safety in international trade.

Ind AS 109 covers Financial Instruments: Recognition, Measurement, Impairment (ECL model), and Hedge Accounting.

The shortage of Debit (4500 in Ram) is exactly compensated by the shortage of Credit (4500 in Shyam). The Trial Balance will still agree.

Since calculations are automated, the audit focus shifts to testing the IT controls, parameter settings, and exception reports generated by the system.

Assets are recorded at the price paid to acquire them, not at their changing market values. This ensures objectivity.

Nominal accounts are temporary. They are summarized in the P&L account to determine profit/loss, which is then added to Capital. Real/Personal accounts go to Balance Sheet.

Interest charged increases the Overdraft (making the balance more negative/lower). Cash Book hasn't recorded it, so it shows a better position (higher/less negative).

Profit on sale is an operating gain (or non-operating depending on view, but revenue nature) and is credited to the P&L Account.

These are costs to bring the entity into existence. They are usually capitalized or treated as deferred revenue expenditure and written off over a period.

Blank endorsement converts the bill into a bearer instrument, transferable by delivery alone.

Interest paid is a cost of obtaining finance. Hence, for non-financial firms, it is a Financing Activity. (For banks, it is Operating).

To provide timely information, the indefinite life of a business is cut into smaller periods (typically 12 months) for reporting.

Since P&L for the previous year is closed, any nominal account correction now must go through P&L Adjustment to keep current year P&L pure.

Sometimes entry date and value date differ. For interest calculation, the Value Date is what matters.

RBIA shifts focus from transaction testing to risk process testing. It prioritizes areas with inherent high risk.

If branch A debits Branch B, and Branch B doesn't credit, the money might be siphoned off. Long outstanding entries suggest control failure.

Cash (Asset) comes in (+10,000), and Bank Loan (Liability) is created (+10,000). Equation balances.

Returns Inward (Sales Return) of goods sold on credit are entered here.

Start: Passbook (Lower because payment made). Target: Cash Book (Higher because payment not recorded). To reach Target from Start, we must ADD.

For small items like tools where individual tracking is hard, they are revalued at year-end, and the difference is treated as depreciation.

Expenses to put an old asset into usable condition (First repairs/whitewash) are capitalized. Subsequent whitewashing is Revenue.

Since both benefit from the funds, the cost of funds (discount) is shared in the same proportion as the proceeds.

MCA mandated Ind AS for NBFCs in phases based on net worth, similar to corporates.

Example: In a Finance Lease, the lessee records the asset even though legal title is with the lessor, because in substance/reality, the lessee uses it.

Suspense represents errors. Until found, it remains as a real balance in the Balance Sheet.

Given banks' reliance on CBS, System Audit checks security, data integrity, and IT governance.

If Closing Stock appears inside the Trial Balance, it means it has already been adjusted against Purchases (Cost of Goods Sold). Therefore, it is not shown in the Trading Account but only appears as an Asset in the Balance Sheet.

Securities Premium is a capital receipt and is restricted for specific uses like bonus shares or writing off expenses. It cannot be treated as free reserves for distributing cash dividends.

Under the Banking Regulation Act, banks cannot hold immovable property (except for own use) for more than 7 years. Properties acquired from defaulters to recover loans are termed "Non-Banking Assets".

Depreciation is an accounting entry, not a cash outflow. Since it was deducted to arrive at Net Profit, it must be added back to find the actual "Cash Flow from Operations".

The liability of the shareholder is limited to the called-up amount. When forfeiting, we reverse the capital created so far, which is the Called-up Value (not necessarily the full Face Value if final call hasn't been made).

Unlike legacy systems where IBR was a huge manual task, CBS uses a central database. A debit in Branch A and credit in Branch B happens simultaneously in the central server, ensuring automatic real-time reconciliation.

These are off-balance sheet items where the bank has a potential liability (e.g., Letters of Credit, Guarantees) that will crystallize only if the customer defaults. They are reported in Schedule 12.

Section 68 of the Companies Act prohibits buyback using proceeds of an earlier issue of the *same kind* of shares. It allows using Free Reserves or Securities Premium.

Adjustments have a dual effect. 1. Create the expense (Debit P&L). 2. Reduce the asset value (Deduct from Sundry Debtors in Balance Sheet).

Financing activities relate to capital and debt structure. Paying dividends is a return on capital to owners, hence Financing. (Interest received is Investing; Payment to suppliers is Operating).

As per Table F of the Companies Act, 2013, the maximum interest rate chargeable on Calls in Arrears is 10% p.a. (For Calls in Advance, it is 12% p.a.).

In Form B (P&L Account of a Bank), there is a specific head called "Provisions and Contingencies" where provisions for NPAs, Tax, and Diminution in Investments are recorded.

Items inside the Trial Balance have already been journalized. Wages Outstanding in TB means the entry (Wages A/c Dr to Wages Outstanding A/c) is already passed. So, it only needs to go to the Balance Sheet as a Liability.

Section 53 prohibits the issue of shares at a discount, with the sole exception of "Sweat Equity Shares" issued to employees/directors for know-how or IP rights (Section 54).

AS 3 prescribes the format and requirements for the Cash Flow Statement. (Corresponding Ind AS is Ind AS 7).

Schedule 8 (Investments) includes investments in Government securities, Shares, Debentures, and Gold . It is not treated as Cash.

Pro-rata allotment involves allotting shares in a ratio (e.g., 2 shares for every 3 applied) when there is oversubscription, ensuring every applicant gets something.

Marshalling is the arrangement of assets and liabilities either in the order of Liquidity (most liquid first) or Permanence (most permanent first).

The End of Day (EOD) process validates transactions, checks GL balance, calculates interest if due, and logically moves the system date forward.

The loss on reissue (discount) cannot exceed the amount already collected (gain on forfeiture) for those specific shares. This ensures capital is kept intact.

Unlike Gold (which is an Investment), Silver is typically classified under Schedule 11: "Other Assets" in the banking balance sheet format.

Redemption means repaying the debt. It involves cash going out (Outflow) and relates to the capital structure (Financing).

Accrued Income is income earned but not yet received. It is a receivable, hence a Current Asset.

In Cumulative Preference Shares, unpaid dividends accumulate and must be paid before any dividend is paid to equity shareholders.

CRAR measures a bank's capital against its risk. The denominator is Risk Weighted Assets (RWA), not Total Assets.

CBS is driven by parameters. New products are created by defining parameters (rules) in the system master, without changing the core software code.

Cash Equivalents are short-term, highly liquid investments that are readily convertible to known amounts of cash and subject to insignificant risk of changes in value (typically < 3 months maturity).

Income Tax of the proprietor is a personal expense, not a business expense. Hence, it is treated as Drawings and deducted from Capital in the Balance Sheet.

Authorized (Registered) Capital is the ceiling limit mentioned in the MOA. The company cannot issue shares beyond this without amending the MOA.

Bills for Collection is a service where the bank acts as an agent. It is neither an asset nor a liability of the bank until realized. It is shown as a footnote.

Bonus shares must be issued out of free reserves, securities premium, or capital redemption reserve. Revaluation Reserve is created by revaluing assets (unrealized gain) and cannot be used for issuing bonus shares as per the Companies Act.

If the net balance of Inter-Office Adjustments is a Debit, it represents an asset (receivable) and is shown under Schedule 11. If it is a Credit, it is shown under Schedule 5 (Liabilities).

This is a significant non-cash transaction (Investigative/Financing) where no cash enters or leaves the entity. It should be disclosed in notes but not in the body of the Cash Flow Statement.

This module allows the bank to parameterize new schemes. Interest rates or charges defined here are automatically applied to all accounts linked to that product code.

The Minimum Subscription clause ensures that the company raises enough funds to carry out its project. If 90% of the issue is not subscribed, the entire amount collected must be refunded.

This is distinct from companies. For partnerships, tax is a personal liability of the firm/partners, often treated as Drawings in accounting questions, or appropriation. However, technically, tax on firm's profit is an appropriation, but tax paid on behalf of partners is Drawings.

Schedule 6 specifically covers Cash in hand and Balances with the Reserve Bank of India. Schedule 7 covers balances with OTHER banks.

Ind AS 7 states that tax cash flows should be operating unless they can be specifically identified with financing or investing activities (e.g., tax on capital gains from selling an asset is Investing).

As per recent MCA amendments, Banking Companies, All India Financial Institutions (AIFIs), and NBFCs registered with RBI are EXEMPT from creating DRR for privately placed debentures. For other listed companies, it is also nil. DRR is mainly for unlisted non-NBFC companies (10%).

Run-to-run totals involve checking that control totals (like total batch value) match from one processing stage to another, ensuring data completeness and accuracy.

When a bank discounts a bill, it deducts interest for the full period upfront. If the bill matures in the *next* accounting year, the portion of interest relating to the next year is "Income Received in Advance" and is shown as a liability (Rebate on Bills Discounted).

Interest on Capital is an appropriation of profit among partners, not a charge against profit. Hence, it appears in the P&L Appropriation A/c, not the main P&L A/c.

As per the Companies Act, 2013, the maximum underwriting commission on shares is 5% of the issue price (or the rate authorized by Articles, whichever is less). For Debentures, it is 2.5%.

Investing activities involve the acquisition and disposal of long-term assets and other investments not included in cash equivalents.

RBI mandates disclosure of divergence if the additional provisioning required exceeds 10% of reported net profit OR if the additional Gross NPA exceeds 10% (was 15% earlier) of reported Gross NPA.

Since rules are defined centrally in the Data Center, any change (like a rate cut) is applied instantly and uniformly to all accounts across all branches, eliminating local errors.

Shares issued as Sweat Equity are non-transferable for a period of 3 years from the date of allotment.

A Provision (e.g., for Tax) must be made even if there is a loss. A Reserve (e.g., General Reserve) is created only if there is profit.

For a financial enterprise (Bank), lending money is the main business. Hence, interest received on loans is an Operating Cash Inflow. (For a non-financial firm, it would be Investing).

The statutory format requires classification by nature of facility: A. Bills Purchased and Discounted, B. Cash Credits, Overdrafts and Loans repayable on demand, C. Term Loans.

Vesting is the process of earning the right to the shares. The employee must serve the company during this period to get the right to buy shares.

The DR Site is a replica of the Primary Data Center located in a different seismic zone. It takes over operations if the PDC goes down to ensure business continuity.

Assets like a building under construction or machinery being installed are shown as CWIP in the Balance Sheet until they are capitalized (ready for use). Depreciation is NOT charged on CWIP.

Schedule III provides the general instructions and format (Part I for BS, Part II for P&L) for preparation of financial statements of companies.

The schedules are fixed: 1-Capital, 2-Reserves, 3-Deposits, 4-Borrowings, 5-Other Liabilities. On Asset side: 6-Cash, 7-Balances with Banks, 8-Investments, 9-Advances.

Bank overdrafts which are repayable on demand and form an integral part of an enterprise's cash management are included as a component of cash and cash equivalents (negative cash).

Interest on debentures is a debt obligation. It is a "Charge against profit", meaning it must be paid regardless of whether the company makes a profit or loss.

Once written off, the debtor's account is closed. Any subsequent recovery is a gain/income and is credited to "Bad Debts Recovered A/c", which goes to the Credit side of P&L.

Tier 1 is Presentation (Client), Tier 2 is Application (Logic/Calculation), and Tier 3 is Database (Storage). The Application Server executes the core banking rules.

PCR measures the cushion a bank has against its bad loans. It is calculated as (Total Provisions held for NPAs / Gross NPAs) * 100.

If CR > 1, reducing both Current Assets (Cash) and Current Liabilities (Creditors) by the same amount increases the ratio. E.g., (150-50)/(100-50) = 100/50 = 2:1 (Improved from 1.5:1).

Provisioning norms for Secured Doubtful Assets: D1 (up to 1 year) = 25%; D2 (1-3 years) = 40%; D3 (>3 years) = 100%.

For non-financial enterprises, interest and dividends received are returns on investments made, hence classified as Investing Activities.

Under Section 54, the limit is 15% of the existing paid-up equity share capital in a year or shares of the issue value of ?5 crores, whichever is higher.

Proprietary Ratio = Shareholders' Funds / Total Assets. A high ratio means a larger portion of assets is funded by owners' equity, providing a greater safety margin for creditors.

This is a fundamental internal control mechanism to prevent fraud and error. No single employee should be able to complete a critical financial transaction from start to end.

These are potential obligations that may arise depending on the outcome of a future event (e.g., a court case). They are disclosed in the footnotes.

Section 62 of the Companies Act requires new shares to be offered first to existing shareholders to protect them from dilution of ownership.

SLR assets include Cash, Gold, and Unencumbered Approved Securities. Balances with other banks are NOT eligible for SLR (only excess balance with RBI is).

A change in useful life is a Change in Accounting Estimate (AS 10). The effect is prospective, spreading the remaining book value over the new remaining life.

Quick Ratio = (Current Assets - Inventory - Prepaid Expenses) / Current Liabilities. Inventory is considered less liquid because it takes time to sell.

Increase in Current Liabilities (Creditors) means cash is retained (not paid out). It is a source of working capital funding, so it is Added back to Net Profit to find Cash from Operations.

Repairs that only maintain the asset are revenue expenses. Only those that enhance capacity, efficiency, or life are capitalized.

While the actual appointment letter is issued by the Bank, the selection is strictly regulated by norms set by RBI and the Comptroller & Auditor General (C&AG).

Discounting a bill is effectively lending money to the customer against the security of the bill. Hence, it is an Advance (Loan).

Dividends represent a distribution of earnings. They cannot be paid out of capital reserves (like Securities Premium or CRR) or unrealized gains (Revaluation Reserve).

DSCR measures the ability to pay debt obligations. The numerator represents operating cash flow available for debt service (Profit + Non-cash exp + Interest), and the denominator is the debt obligation.

Sales Return has a Debit balance. Overcast means the debit total is too high. To reduce it, we must Credit Sales Return. The corresponding debit goes to Suspense.

The fundamental accounting equation is Assets = Liabilities + Capital. Therefore, A+L=C is mathematically incorrect.

Non-repudiation ensures that a user cannot deny having performed an action. If IDs are shared, accountability is lost, and the specific user cannot be pinpointed.

Payment reduces the bank balance. Since it's not recorded in the Cash Book yet, the Cash Book balance remains higher.

Discount is offered only to good debtors. Therefore, we first remove bad debts and doubtful debts (Provision) before calculating the provision for discount.

Securities Premium can be used for: Bonus shares, Writing off preliminary expenses, Writing off issue expenses/commission, Providing for premium on redemption, and Buyback of shares.

Schedule 7 covers "Balances with Banks and Money at Call and Short Notice".

Earnings Before Interest and Tax (EBIT) represents the profit available to service debt. Dividing this by Interest expense shows how easily a company can pay interest.

Since the loss of stock relates to operations, the insurance recovery is also an Operating Cash Flow but should be disclosed separately as an extraordinary item.

Depreciation = (Cost - Scrap) * (Units produced in the year / Total estimated life units). It links expense to actual usage.

The RBI mandates that the LFAR should be submitted by 30th June every year for the year ending 31st March.

It is a capital reserve and is grouped under "Reserves and Surplus" in the Equity and Liabilities part.

RBI mandates 0.25% provision for standard assets in Agriculture and SME sectors. For commercial real estate, it is higher (1% or 0.75%). For general advances, it is 0.40%.

DuPont Analysis breaks ROE down into: 1. Net Profit Margin (Profitability), 2. Asset Turnover (Efficiency), and 3. Financial Leverage (Equity Multiplier). Current Ratio is a liquidity ratio, not part of the DuPont identity.

LFAR is a comprehensive report that goes beyond financial numbers to comment on the efficacy of internal controls, asset quality, housekeeping, and MIS at the branch level.

Unrealized forex gains/losses do not involve actual cash movement. However, to match the opening and closing cash equivalents (held in foreign currency), the effect of exchange rate changes is reported separately at the bottom of the statement.

Section 55 of the Companies Act states that redemption must happen either out of distributable profits (creating CRR) or out of the proceeds of a fresh issue of shares made for the purpose of redemption.

The CIA triad of security stands for Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. Confidentiality specifically deals with restricting access to authorized personnel only.

Profit/Loss = Net Sale Proceeds - Book Value on date of sale. Comparing with Original Cost is incorrect because depreciation has reduced the asset's value over time.

Since the nominal accounts of the previous year are closed, any adjustment affecting profit must be routed through the Profit & Loss Adjustment Account (or shown as Prior Period Items) to avoid distorting current year's operating profit.

Banks collect discount upfront. If a bill matures next year, the portion of discount relating to next year is "Income Received in Advance," which is a liability as per the Accrual Concept.

Interest Coverage Ratio = EBIT / Interest. A ratio of 8 means the company earns 8 times the amount needed to pay interest, showing high solvency and safety.

Section 52 of Companies Act, 2013 specifically lists "writing off the expenses of, or the commission paid or discount allowed on, any issue of shares or debentures" as a permitted use of Securities Premium.

Interest is the cost of servicing debt (Capital). Since Loans are Financing activities, the interest paid on them is also a Financing outflow.

Concurrent means "happening at the same time". It is an internal control process for real-time checking. Statutory audit is a legal requirement conducted after the financial year ends to certify financial statements.

Data mining involves analyzing large datasets to discover patterns and relationships. Banks use it for credit scoring, fraud detection, and targeted marketing (CRM).

DSCR < 1 is a danger signal. It means Operating Cash Flow is insufficient to cover Interest + Principal repayments. The firm may default unless it borrows more or sells assets.

Sum of digits = 1+2+3+4+5 = 15. For Year 1, remaining life is 5. Fraction = 5/15 = 1/3. Depreciation = 15,000 * 1/3 = ?5,000.

Deposits are actual liabilities (Schedule 3). Guarantees become liabilities ONLY if the customer defaults. Hence, they are Contingent Liabilities (Schedule 12).

Section 68 restricts buyback to 25% of the aggregate of paid-up capital and free reserves.

RPO defines how much data you can afford to lose. If RPO is 15 mins, backups must be frequent enough so that in a crash, you lose no more than 15 mins of data. (RTO is Recovery Time Objective - how fast you are back up).

This ratio measures how many times a company sells and replaces its stock of goods during a period. Ideally, COGS is used; if unavailable, Sales can be used.

Regardless of the period for which the asset has remained doubtful (D1, D2, or D3), the unsecured portion (not covered by realizable value of security) must be fully provided for (100%).

Buying assets is an outflow (Application) of cash and falls under Investing Activities.

Any issue of shares at a discount (except sweat equity) is void, and the company/officers are liable for penalties.

Since data is central, the customer belongs to the bank, not just the branch. They can access services from any location.

Operating Profit (EBIT) measures profit from core business operations, excluding non-operating items like interest and tax. The ratio expresses this as a percentage of sales.

RBI tightened the norms (previously 15%, now 10%) to ensure banks report bad loans accurately. If RBI inspection finds NPAs are under-reported by >10%, disclosure is mandatory.

Undrawn limits are commitments. They do not appear on the BS as assets or liabilities until the customer actually draws the money. However, they represent a potential liquidity demand.

As per Table F of Companies Act 2013, interest on Calls in Advance is max 12% p.a., while interest on Calls in Arrears is max 10% p.a.

SOA allows different applications (like Loans, Deposits, Payments) to communicate with each other as distinct services, making the system modular and flexible.

CA/CL = 2/1. So CA = 2CL. Working Capital = CA - CL = 2CL - CL = CL. Given Working Capital = 60,000, so CL = 60,000. CA = 2 * CL = 1,20,000.

As per the Banking Regulation Act format, Silver is not considered an approved security for investment purposes in the same way as Gold. It is classified under Schedule 11 (Other Assets).

When compounding occurs more frequently than once a year (e.g., quarterly), interest is earned on interest more often, making the Effective Annual Rate (EAR) higher than the stated Nominal Rate.

A key assumption of NPV is that cash flows generated during the project life are reinvested at the firm's Cost of Capital (Required Rate of Return), which is considered more realistic than the IRR assumption.

Interest payments reduce the taxable income of the company, effectively lowering the cost of debt by the tax rate [Kd = I(1-t)]. Equity dividends are paid out of post-tax profits and offer no tax shield.

MM Proposition I (No Tax) states that in a perfect market, how a firm finances its operations (Debt vs Equity) is irrelevant to its total value. Value is determined by its earning power and risk of assets, not funding mix.

Operating Cycle = Inventory Period + Accounts Receivable Period. It is the duration from buying raw materials to collecting cash from customers.

Rule of 72 formula: Years to Double ˜ 72 / Interest Rate. Here, 72 / 8 = 9 years.

IRR is defined as the discount rate at which NPV is zero. If NPV calculated at the cost of capital is zero, then the IRR must be exactly equal to that cost of capital.

In Method I, MPBF = 0.75 * (Total Current Assets - Current Liabilities). This implies the borrower finances 25% of the Working Capital Gap (CA-CL) from long-term sources.

Gordon's Formula: P = D1 / (Ke - g). It values a stock based on the next expected dividend (D1), the cost of equity (Ke), and the constant growth rate (g).

If ROI > Cost of Debt, using debt magnifies the Earnings Per Share (EPS) for shareholders (Trading on Equity). If ROI < Cost of Debt, leverage destroys value.

Perpetuity is a stream of constant cash flows that continues indefinitely. PV of Perpetuity = Annual Cash Flow / Discount Rate.

Payback period only focuses on how quickly the initial investment is recovered. It ignores profitability (total cash flows) and the Time Value of Money (unless discounted payback is used).

Beta indicates how volatile a stock is compared to the overall market. Beta > 1 means higher volatility than the market; Beta < 1 means lower volatility.

Profit maximization is vague, short-term, and ignores risk/timing. Wealth maximization (maximizing stock price/NPV) accounts for timing, cash flows, and risk, serving the long-term interest of shareholders.

Gross Working Capital is Total Current Assets. Net Working Capital is the difference between Current Assets and Current Liabilities, representing the liquidity cushion.

In an Ordinary Annuity, cash flows occur at the end of the period (e.g., bond interest). In Annuity Due, cash flows occur at the beginning (e.g., rent, insurance premium).

Because future cash flows are discounted (reduced in value), it takes more time (more years) to recover the initial investment in present value terms compared to nominal terms.

DOL measures how much Operating Profit (EBIT) changes for a 1% change in Sales. It reflects business risk arising from fixed operating costs. (DFL measures EPS sensitivity to EBIT).

If r > k, the firm can earn more on the money than the shareholders can earn elsewhere. Therefore, to maximize value, the firm should retain all earnings and reinvest them.

Retained earnings involve an opportunity cost. Shareholders forgo dividends to let the firm reinvest. They expect a return equal to what they would demand on equity shares (Ke).

Spontaneous sources arise naturally from day-to-day business operations (like buying goods on credit creates accounts payable). They expand automatically as sales expand.

YTM is the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of the bond. It discounts all future coupon payments and principal repayment to the current market price of the bond.

At the indifference point, the firm is indifferent between choosing Debt plan or Equity plan because the EPS remains identical. Below this EBIT level, equity is better; above it, debt is better.

PI = PV of Cash Inflows / Initial Investment. If PI > 1, it means the project generates more value than it costs (NPV is positive), so it should be accepted.

Combined Leverage = Degree of Operating Leverage × Degree of Financial Leverage. It measures the sensitivity of EPS to changes in Sales.

Net Working Capital = CA - CL. If CA = CL, Net Working Capital is zero. This implies no long-term funds are used to finance current assets.

This theory views dividends as a passive residual. Priority is given to reinvesting in profitable projects. Only if funds remain, dividend is paid.

Marginal cost is the incremental cost of new capital. It is the relevant rate for evaluating new investment proposals.

If you need ?10 Lakhs after 5 years to repay a bond, the Sinking Fund factor helps you calculate how much you need to save annually to reach that target.

Macaulay Duration is a measure of a bond's interest rate sensitivity. It represents the weighted average time to receive the bond's cash flows.

Firms prefer internal funds (Retained Earnings) first because they are cheapest and safest. Next is Debt. External Equity is the last resort due to high costs and dilution.

Sensitivity Analysis helps identify which variables (like sales price or raw material cost) the project is most sensitive to, indicating where the risk lies.

CPs are used by highly rated corporates to meet short-term working capital requirements at rates typically lower than bank interest rates.

Buyback returns excess cash to shareholders, similar to a dividend. However, it provides tax advantages (Capital Gains tax vs Dividend Tax) and signals management confidence.

More frequent compounding results in interest being earned on interest sooner, leading to a higher final amount. Daily > Quarterly > Annual.

NPV is preferred because it measures the absolute addition to shareholder wealth and uses a realistic reinvestment rate (Cost of Capital), whereas IRR assumes reinvestment at the IRR itself, which may be unrealistic.

Market values reflect the current economic value of the capital employed. Using market value weights aligns the WACC with the actual cost of raising new capital in the market today.

The goal is to find the cheapest mix of funds. Lower WACC means higher Net Present Value of future cash flows, thus maximizing firm value.

Method II ensures that the borrower finances 25% of Total Current Assets from long-term sources, resulting in a Current Ratio of 1.33:1.

If the bond pays less interest (Coupon) than the market expects (YTM), its price must fall below face value to offer a competitive yield to the investor.

Discounting is the reverse of compounding. It determines what a future amount is worth today, given a specific interest rate.

NOI theory suggests that the benefits of cheaper debt are exactly offset by the increasing cost of equity (higher risk), leaving the overall WACC (Ko) and Firm Value unchanged.

Bonus shares convert free reserves into share capital. The total Net Worth (Capital + Reserves) remains the same; only the composition changes.

There is an inverse relationship. A higher discount rate means money loses value faster over time, so the current worth of a future sum is lower.

Gross Operating Cycle = Inventory Period + Receivables Period = 60 + 45 = 105 Days. (Note: Net Operating Cycle would be 105 - 30 = 75 days. Usually "Operating Cycle" implies Gross unless specified).

Firms take on debt to get tax shields (benefit), but only up to a point where the risk of bankruptcy (financial distress cost) starts outweighing the tax benefit.

Ke = Risk Free Rate + [Beta * (Market Return - Risk Free Rate)]. This adds a risk premium to the safe rate based on the stock's volatility.

Unlike other methods (NPV, IRR, Payback) which use Cash Flows, ARR uses Accounting Profit from the P&L account.

Since there are no interim coupon payments, the entire cash flow occurs at maturity. Thus, the weighted average time to receive cash flow is exactly the maturity period.

Companies maintain stable dividends to signal consistency and reliability to investors, avoiding sharp drops even when profits dip temporarily.

High operating leverage means high fixed costs. High financial leverage means high debt/interest. A small drop in sales can lead to massive losses or bankruptcy.

It is a forecasting tool that estimates cash inflows and outflows, ensuring the firm has enough liquidity to meet obligations.

Formula: EAR = (1 + r/n)^n - 1. Here r=0.12, n=12. EAR = (1 + 0.01)^12 - 1 = 1.1268 - 1 = 0.1268 or 12.68%.

NPV gives an absolute value which favors larger projects. PI (Benefit-Cost Ratio) gives a relative measure (Value per rupee invested), making it better for ranking projects of different sizes.

Preference dividends are not tax-deductible, so no tax adjustment is made. Cost = Dp / NP.

If the bond pays more interest than the market demands, investors will pay more than the face value to acquire it.

These costs offset the tax benefits of debt in the Trade-off Theory, suggesting an optimal level of debt exists.

MM argue that in a perfect world without taxes or transaction costs, dividend policy does not affect share price; investors can create their own dividends by selling shares.

While a high ratio shows safety, too high means cash is not being invested or inventory is not being sold, indicating poor asset management.

To find the present value, we divide the future value by the compounding factor (1+r)^n.

As a firm takes on more debt (higher D/E ratio), the financial risk to shareholders increases. Shareholders demand a higher return (Ke) to compensate for this added risk.

Standard IRR assumes cash flows are reinvested at the IRR rate (often unrealistic). MIRR assumes reinvestment at the Cost of Capital (WACC), providing a more accurate picture of profitability.

Rule of 69 Formula: Doubling Period = 0.35 + (69 / Interest Rate). Here, 0.35 + (69/10) = 0.35 + 6.9 = 7.25 years. This is more accurate for continuous compounding.

The Chore Committee reinforced the adoption of Tandon Method II: MPBF = (Total Current Assets * 0.75) - Current Liabilities (excluding bank borrowings). This ensures a higher current ratio.

Stock split increases the number of shares and reduces the face value per share proportionately. It does not change the total capital or reserves, unlike a Bonus Issue which capitalizes reserves.

Floatation costs (issue expenses) reduce the "Net Proceeds" the company receives from the issue. Since the denominator (Net Proceeds) decreases, the calculated Cost of Capital increases.

When interest rates rise, existing bonds with lower coupon rates become less attractive, so their price falls. Conversely, when rates fall, bond prices rise.

Under RADR, a higher discount rate (Risk-Free Rate + Risk Premium) is used for riskier projects, which lowers the Present Value of future inflows, making the acceptance criteria stricter.

This indicates a liquidity crisis where short-term obligations exceed short-term assets. However, in some sectors like retail (supermarkets), this might be a strategy (using supplier credit to fund inventory).

Financial Break-even Point is the level of EBIT at which EPS is zero. It is the point where operating profit is just enough to cover fixed financial charges (Interest + Preference Dividend).

A loan is a lump sum received today (PV), which is repaid in installments (Annuity). To equate the loan amount to the stream of EMIs, we use PVIFA.

Excessive debt increases the probability of bankruptcy. Lenders compensate for this increased credit risk by charging higher interest rates.

Factoring allows a firm to sell its accounts receivable (invoices) to a Factor for immediate cash (up to 80-90%), improving liquidity.

Current yield measures the return based on the current market price, ignoring capital gains/losses upon maturity.

This policy gives shareholders a reliable steady income while allowing the firm to share prosperity in boom years without committing to a permanently high dividend.

Traditional NPV ignores future flexibility. Real Options approach values the ability to change course (e.g., abandoning a failing project early), adding value to the investment.

CAPM assumes "Homogeneous Expectations" - that all investors have the same expectations regarding expected returns, variances, and correlations.

The Baumol Model balances the "Ordering Cost" (Transaction cost of selling securities) against the "Carrying Cost" (Opportunity cost of holding cash) to find the optimal cash balance, just like EOQ.

The indifference point is specifically calculated to find the EBIT level where the EPS outcome is identical regardless of the financing option chosen.

In the early years, the outstanding principal is high, so interest is high. As principal is repaid, interest drops, allowing a larger portion of the fixed EMI to go towards principal repayment.

Instead of adjusting the rate (RADR), CE adjusts the numerator (Cash Flows) by multiplying uncertain flows with a CE coefficient (0 to 1) to get certain flows, then discounts them at the risk-free rate.

Carrying costs are the costs of holding inventory in the warehouse. Ordering costs are associated with placing orders. Stockout costs arise when inventory is exhausted.

Retained earnings lead to share price appreciation (Capital Gains). If capital gains are taxed at a lower rate than dividend income (or deferred), investors prefer retention over payout.

A perpetual bond has no maturity. Its value is simply the annual interest divided by the yield (discount rate), based on the perpetuity formula.

Cheaper debt reduces WACC, but increased financial risk raises Ke. MM II argues these exactly cancel out, keeping overall WACC constant.

JIT is a lean manufacturing strategy. By eliminating idle stock, it minimizes storage, insurance, and obsolescence costs, though it increases the risk of stockouts.

Explicit costs involve cash outflow (interest). Implicit costs are Opportunity Costs. The cost of retained earnings is the return shareholders could have earned if the money was distributed.

SIP involves a series of equal payments at regular intervals. We want to know the total value at the end (Future), so FV of Annuity is used.

Decision making focuses on "what changes". Only the extra cash inflow or cost saving generated by the new machine over the old one is relevant.

DFL measures the impact of interest (fixed financial cost). It is Operating Profit (EBIT) divided by Profit Before Tax (EBT). DFL = EBIT / (EBIT - Interest).

Unlike MM theory, the Traditional View argues that judicious use of debt initially lowers the WACC (Ko) up to a point. Beyond this point, rising financial risk causes Ke and Kd to rise, increasing WACC. The lowest point of the U-shaped WACC curve is the optimal structure.

Decision trees map out sequential decisions and uncertain outcomes (with probabilities), allowing managers to evaluate complex, multi-stage investment proposals.

Duration assumes a straight line relationship, which is inaccurate for large rate changes. Convexity measures the curvature, showing that bond prices rise more when rates fall than they drop when rates rise.

Based on a working capital cycle of 3 months (25% of year), the requirement is 25% of turnover. The promoter brings 5%, and the bank provides 20% as a minimum limit.

Cost of Debt depends on interest, tax shield, and redemption terms (discount/premium). Dividend Payout Ratio is relevant for Cost of Equity, not Debt.

While r = R + i is a common approximation, the precise relationship accounts for the cross-product of real rate and inflation: r = R + i + (R*i). Thus, (1+r) is the product of (1+R) and (1+i).

Proposed by Gordon and Lintner, this theory argues that dividends are less risky than future capital appreciation. Therefore, a higher dividend payout reduces the cost of equity and increases share price.

DFL = EBIT / (EBIT - Interest). DFL = 1,00,000 / (1,00,000 - 20,000) = 1,00,000 / 80,000 = 1.25. Tax rate is irrelevant for DFL calculation (unless Preference Dividend exists).

When the direction of cash flows changes more than once (e.g., heavy maintenance cost in year 5 causing a net outflow), the IRR equation can have multiple mathematical solutions, making IRR unreliable.

An LC (especially Usance LC) allows the buyer to receive goods now and pay later. This creates "Sundry Creditors," which is a source of spontaneous working capital financing.

The P/E ratio indicates how much the market is willing to pay for every rupee of earnings generated by the company. A high P/E suggests high growth expectations.

Managers might pursue personal goals (like expensive jets) over shareholder wealth (Agency cost of equity). Shareholders might take high risks to shift loss to debt-holders (Agency cost of debt).

This point is called the "Break Point". Once retained earnings are used up, the firm must issue new shares (incurring floatation costs), which raises the WACC.

Example: A pension plan where you invest now, but the annuity payments (pension) start only after you retire (say, after 10 years).

Firms attract a specific clientele based on their payout policy. Changing the policy might alienate the existing shareholder base and affect the stock price.

Under Capital Rationing, the firm must select the combination of projects that maximizes total NPV within the budget constraint (often using Profitability Index).

CCC measures the time between paying for raw materials and receiving cash from sales. A shorter cycle is better for liquidity.

If the firm earns less on its assets (ROI) than the interest it pays on debt, using debt reduces the return to shareholders (Negative Leverage).

Book Value represents the net worth attributable to equity shareholders based on the historical accounting figures, not market value.

With taxes, debt provides a tax shield. The value of the firm increases by the Present Value of the Tax Shield, which is Debt * Tax Rate (Dt). So Vl = Vu + Dt.

If a stock is above the SML, it is offering a higher expected return than what CAPM predicts for its level of risk. Hence, it is attractive/undervalued and should be bought.

Sunk costs are past costs that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered (e.g., money spent on market research last year). They should not affect the decision to accept/reject a project today.

T-Bills are short-term sovereign debt instruments issued by the Central Government (via RBI) to meet short-term liquidity mismatches. They are risk-free.

Companies Act allows declaring dividend out of reserves if current profits are insufficient, provided conditions regarding rate of dividend and withdrawal amount are met.

Formula: PV = CF1 / (k - g). This is used when cash flows grow forever at a constant rate (e.g., valuation of a stock with constant dividend growth).

Lower coupon bonds have higher Duration (more of their value comes from the distant principal repayment). Higher duration means higher price volatility when rates change.

DOL = Contribution / EBIT. If Fixed Cost is 0, then Contribution = EBIT. So, DOL = Contribution / Contribution = 1. This implies no operating leverage (1% change in sales = 1% change in EBIT).

Over-capitalization doesn't mean too much money. It means the capital base is too large relative to the earnings, leading to low dividend rates and falling share prices.

A conservative policy minimizes risk by using safe long-term funds for everything, even temporary needs. This increases safety (high liquidity) but reduces profitability (higher cost of long-term funds).

Post-Audit provides feedback, helps identify why forecasts went wrong, and improves future decision-making. It is a control mechanism.

He stays in India from 1st April to 25th Sept (approx 178 days). Since he leaves for employment, the 60-day rule is replaced by 182 days. Since 178 < 182, he is a Non-Resident.

Section 17(5) of the CGST Act blocks ITC for goods that are lost, stolen, destroyed, written off, or disposed of by way of gift or free samples.

Prime Cost represents the total direct costs of production (Material, Labor, and Expenses) before adding any overheads.

The threshold limit for TDS on interest income for Senior Citizens is ?50,000. For others, it is ?40,000.

BEP (Units) = Fixed Cost / Contribution per Unit = 40,000 / 10 = 4,000 units.

For intra-state supply, both CGST (Centre) and SGST (State) are levied concurrently. This concurrent taxation power defines the Dual GST model.

Spending less than the standard (budgeted) amount increases profit, so it is a Favorable Variance.

As per Section 208, every person whose estimated tax liability for the year is ?10,000 or more is liable to pay advance tax.

ZBB does not take the previous year's budget as a base. Every activity/expense must be justified from scratch as if it were new.

Composition dealers cannot collect tax from customers or claim Input Tax Credit. They must pay a small percentage of turnover from their own pocket and issue a "Bill of Supply" instead of a Tax Invoice.

PV Ratio indicates the rate at which profit is earned. Contribution = Sales - Variable Cost.

If Taxable Income > Accounting Income, you pay more tax now but will pay less later. This prepayment creates an Asset (DTA). Example: Disallowance of expenses in tax that are allowed in books.

In Process Costing, costs are accumulated for each process/stage because the product moves continuously from one process to another.

IGST is collected by the Centre on inter-state transactions and imports. It effectively replaces the sum of CGST and SGST.

Usage Variance isolates the efficiency of material use. It compares quantities allowed (Standard) vs used (Actual), valued at the standard price.

Under Section 111A, STCG on listed equity shares is taxed at a concessional rate of 15% (plus surcharge/cess).

The Master Budget aggregates all sub-budgets to present the overall plan of the organization, typically culminating in a Budgeted P&L and Balance Sheet.

Opportunity Cost is the benefit foregone from the next best alternative. It is an implicit cost used in decision-making but not a cash outflow recorded in books.

Margin of Safety indicates how much sales can fall before the company starts making a loss. Higher MoS means lower risk.

Normally, the supplier pays tax. Under RCM, the liability shifts to the recipient (e.g., a registered dealer buying from an unregistered dealer, or specific services like GTA).

The aggregate limit for deductions under sections 80C, 80CCC, and 80CCD(1) is currently capped at ?1.5 Lakh per financial year.

Job Costing is used when production is not continuous and each product/job is unique according to customer specifications (e.g., Printing, Repair shops).

Efficiency Variance measures productivity. If workers take more time (Actual Hours) than allowed (Standard Hours) to produce the output, the variance is Adverse.

A recent rule change mandates PAN/Aadhaar for cash deposits or withdrawals aggregating to ?20 Lakh or more in a financial year, or for opening a current account.

For exclusive suppliers of goods, the threshold is ?40 Lakh. For service providers (and some goods suppliers), it remains ?20 Lakh.

To maximize profit with scarce resources, a firm must prioritize products that yield the highest contribution per unit of the scarce resource (e.g., Contribution per kg of material).

Cash Budget records only actual cash inflows and outflows. Depreciation is a non-cash expense and is excluded.

Unit costing is used where a single standard product is produced continuously (identical units). Examples: Bricks, Coal, Cement.

Under Section 64(1A), a minor's income is clubbed with the parent having the higher income. Exception: Income earned through manual work or skill/talent of the minor.

Schedule I of the CGST Act specifies activities to be treated as Supply even without consideration. This includes disposal of business assets where Input Tax Credit has been taken.

In the short run, a firm can ignore fixed costs (sunk). But if revenue < variable cost, every unit sold increases the loss. Hence, the Shutdown Point is where Price = Average Variable Cost.

Volume variance arises when actual production volume differs from budgeted volume. If actual production is higher, fixed costs are over-absorbed (Favorable).

Form 26Q is for TDS on payments other than salary to residents. 24Q is for Salary. 27Q is for non-residents.

HSN is an internationally accepted product coding system used to maintain uniformity in classification of goods.

Allocation is the direct assignment of cost to a unit (e.g., Salary of Dept A Manager to Dept A). Apportionment is distributing common costs.

A Flexible Budget adjusts budgeted costs for different levels of activity, recognizing that variable costs change with volume while fixed costs remain constant.

The year in which income is earned is the Previous Year (FY 2023-24). The year in which it is assessed and taxed is the Assessment Year (AY 2024-25).

Contribution = Sales - Variable Cost. Alternatively, Contribution = Fixed Cost + Profit (since Sales - VC - FC = Profit).

Under GST, movement of goods of value exceeding ?50,000 generally requires an E-Way Bill generated from the GST portal.

Retention money ensures the contractor completes the work satisfactorily. It is released after the defect liability period.

Form 15G is for individuals below 60 years, and Form 15H is exclusively for Senior Citizens (60 years and above).

Formula: (Standard Price - Actual Price) * Actual Quantity. (10 - 12) * 1000 = -2 * 1000 = -2000. Since actual price is higher, it is Adverse.

ISD (like Head Office) receives invoices for services used by branches and distributes the Input Tax Credit (ITC) to them proportionately.

Unlike traditional budgeting which focuses on inputs (expenditure items), Performance Budgeting links funding to expected outcomes and outputs (results).

Section 80E allows deduction of the entire interest amount paid on education loans for self, spouse, or children, for a maximum of 8 years.

Fixed costs will be incurred regardless of the decision (unless specific avoidable fixed costs exist). Therefore, the relevant cost to manufacture is only the Marginal/Variable cost.

UTs with legislature (Delhi, J&K, Puducherry) have their own SGST Act. UTs without legislature (Andaman, Lakshadweep, etc.) are governed by the UTGST Act.

Lubricants are consumables not part of the finished product but necessary for production. Hence, Indirect Material.

Agricultural income is exempt from central income tax. However, it is included for rate purposes to determine the tax slab for other income (Partial Integration).

MBE saves management time by alerting them only when actual performance deviates significantly from the plan.

Time of Supply determines the due date for payment of tax. For goods, it is usually the earlier of invoice date or last date to issue invoice.

Cost centers help in allocating and controlling costs. Example: Maintenance Dept, Assembly Line, or a Sales Manager.

In India, the Previous Year always runs from 1st April to 31st March immediately preceding the Assessment Year.

A wider Angle of Incidence means higher profitability (profit grows fast as sales increase). A narrow angle suggests low profitability.

Section 16 of CGST Act lays down 4 conditions: 1. Possession of Invoice 2. Receipt of Goods 3. Tax paid to Govt 4. Return furnished.

Sales Variance = Actual Sales - Budgeted Sales. Since actual revenue is higher than budgeted, it is Favorable.

Credit sales do not bring immediate cash. Only when debtors pay (collection) does cash flow in. Depreciation and Bad Debts are non-cash items.

Income from House Property is applicable only to the OWNER. A tenant subletting the house is not the owner, so the rent received is taxed under "Other Sources" or Business (if it's their business).

Total Fixed Cost remains constant, but as production volume increases, the fixed cost is spread over more units, reducing the cost per unit.

The standard GST slabs are 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%. There is no 25% slab.

Sales Volume Variance measures the impact of the difference between actual quantity sold and budgeted quantity. If a firm sells more units than planned (Actual Qty > Budgeted Qty), it generates more revenue/profit, resulting in a Favorable variance, regardless of the price difference (which is Price Variance).

To claim exemption on Long Term Capital Gains, the assessee must invest the gains in specified bonds of NHAI, REC, etc., within a strict timeline of 6 months from the date of asset transfer. The maximum limit for investment in a financial year is ?50 Lakh.

Composite supply consists of two or more naturally bundled supplies where one is the Principal Supply. Section 8 of the CGST Act states that the tax liability shall be the rate applicable to the Principal Supply (e.g., Mobile Phone rate applies to the whole package).

The Cost Indifference Point is the volume of production at which total costs under two different methods (e.g., Machine A vs Machine B) are identical. Below this point, the option with lower fixed cost is preferred; above it, the option with lower variable cost is preferred.

ZBB reverses the traditional incremental budgeting approach. Managers must justify all expenses for each new period, starting from a "zero base," forcing a review of cost-benefit for every activity to eliminate inefficiencies.

For payments to resident contractors: If the payee is an Individual or HUF, TDS is 1%. For others (like companies/firms), it is 2%. If PAN is not provided, the rate jumps to 20%.

Mixed supply refers to two or more individual supplies sold for a single price which are NOT naturally bundled. GST law mandates that such a supply be taxed at the rate of the item attracting the highest tax rate to prevent tax evasion.

Factory Cost + Administrative Overheads related to production + Opening WIP - Closing WIP = Cost of Production. Selling expenses are added later to find Cost of Sales.

Under Section 73, losses from a speculation business are treated distinctly. They cannot be set off against normal business profits or other heads. They can only be set off against speculation profits and carried forward for 4 years.

ABC assigns overheads based on activities. A Cost Driver (e.g., number of machine setups, number of inspections) is the factor that influences the volume/cost of that activity, providing more accurate costing than traditional volume-based absorption.

To prevent recipients from enjoying tax credit without paying suppliers, GST law mandates reversal of ITC if payment is not made within 180 days. The credit can be re-availed once payment is made.

P/V Ratio = (Sales - Variable Cost) / Sales. Reducing the Variable Cost increases the Contribution margin, thereby increasing the P/V Ratio. Fixed costs do not affect P/V ratio.

The general limit is ?25,000. However, for senior citizens (age 60 or above), the limit is enhanced to ?50,000. This is separate from the self/family limit.

Paying more than the planned (standard) rate increases costs, which reduces profit. Hence, it is an Adverse variance. Formula: (Standard Rate - Actual Rate) * Actual Hours.

A projected cash deficit indicates that outflows exceed inflows. Management must arrange temporary financing like an overdraft or short-term loan to maintain liquidity.

As per IGST Act, for services to a registered person or account holder, the place of supply is the location of the recipient. If the recipient is not an account holder and location is unknown, it is the bank's location.

Sunk costs (e.g., R&D spent on a failed product) are irrelevant for future decision-making because they cannot be changed regardless of the action taken.

If the taxpayer is non-compliant (doesn't file return, doesn't produce documents), the officer estimates the income to the best of their judgment and determines the tax liability.

Contribution must cover both Fixed Cost and the desired Target Profit. Dividing the total required Contribution (FC + Profit) by the PV ratio gives the required Sales volume.

ITC is available only for goods/services used for business furtherance. Personal consumption is a non-business use, so the proportionate credit must be reversed.

Job Costing tracks each unique job separately (heterogeneous). Process Costing averages costs over a large number of identical units produced in a continuous flow (homogeneous).

For compliant taxpayers (who filed returns), TDS @ 2% applies on cash withdrawals exceeding ?1 Crore. For non-filers, the threshold is lower (?20 Lakh).

The Sales Budget estimates the revenue and demand. Since production, purchasing, and cash needs depend on how much the company expects to sell, the Sales Budget is the starting point (Key Factor).

This variance measures the over or under-absorption of fixed overheads based on the actual output achieved versus what was actually spent.

Cross-border transactions between states are Inter-State supplies and attract IGST.

Sales = Variable Cost + Contribution. Dividing by Sales: 1 = (VC/Sales) + (Contribution/Sales). Thus, VC Ratio + P/V Ratio = 1.

For individuals (other than senior citizens) and HUF, interest on savings accounts (bank/post office) up to ?10,000 is deductible. (For Senior Citizens, Sec 80TTB gives ?50,000 limit including FD interest).

Cost unit is a unit of product or service in relation to which costs are ascertained. For transport, it combines quantity (passenger/ton) and distance (km).

GST replaced multiple taxable events (like manufacture, sale, provision of service) with a single event: "Supply".

This ensures that a budget for a full year is always available, keeping the plan current and responsive to changes.

Idle time represents hours paid for but not worked (due to power failure, machine breakdown, etc.). Since this is a cost without production, it always results in an Adverse variance.

If inputs/capital goods are not returned within 1 year/3 years respectively, it is deemed that the principal has supplied them to the job worker on the day they were sent out, and tax becomes payable with interest.

For LRS remittances (other than for education via loan), TCS @ 20% (revised rate) applies on amounts exceeding ?7 Lakh in a financial year.

BEP = Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit. Since the numerator (Fixed Cost) increases and the denominator (Contribution) stays same, the BEP increases (you need to sell more to cover higher fixed costs).

1/4 lag means 1 week's wages are paid next month. So, in April, you pay for the remaining 3 weeks (3/4 or 75%) of April and the pending 1 week (1/4 or 25%) of March.

Since opening and closing WIP are only partially complete, they cannot be simply added to completed units. They are converted into "Equivalent Units" based on the percentage of completion.

Section 171 mandates that any reduction in tax rate or benefit of ITC must be passed on to the consumer. The Competition Commission of India (CCI) now oversees this.

If a firm is subject to audit, the due date for the firm AND its working partners is 31st October of the Assessment Year.

"A" items are high value (70% value, 10% quantity), "B" are moderate, and "C" are low value (10% value, 70% quantity). It helps focus control efforts on high-value items.

This variance arises because the actual hours taken to produce the output differ from the standard hours allowed, affecting the absorption of variable overheads.

Taxpayers with turnover > ?5 Cr must declare 6 digits of HSN code. For turnover up to ?5 Cr, 4 digits are required for B2B.

Contribution = Fixed Cost + Profit = 30,000 + 10,000 = 40,000. P/V Ratio = (Contribution / Sales) * 100 = (40,000 / 1,00,000) * 100 = 40%.

The standard deduction for salaried individuals is ?50,000 (or the amount of salary, whichever is less) under both Old and New Tax Regimes.

Operating Costing is the method used to ascertain the cost of providing a service (e.g., Transport, Hospital, Hotel, Power generation).

Budgets prepared for individual functions/departments of the organization (e.g., Sales Budget, Production Budget) are Functional Budgets. They are consolidated into the Master Budget.

Holding more than one PAN is illegal. The Income Tax Act imposes a penalty of ?10,000 for possessing multiple PANs.

Casual Taxable Persons do not have the benefit of the turnover threshold. They must compulsorily register 5 days before starting business and pay advance tax.

Profit % = Margin of Safety % * P/V Ratio. 20% * 40% = 0.20 * 0.40 = 0.08 or 8%.

Prime Cost = DM + DL + Direct Expenses = 10,000 + 5,000 + 1,000 = 16,000. Factory Rent is an overhead, not part of Prime Cost.

Mix variance calculates the cost impact of changing the ratio/proportion of different materials used (e.g., using more cheap material A and less expensive material B).

As per Section 28(ii), compensation for termination or modification of terms of agency is taxable as "Profits and Gains of Business or Profession".

Renting a residential house for residential purposes is exempt. However, renting it for commercial purposes is taxable.

Capacity Ratio measures whether the available capacity was utilized fully. >100% means overtime was worked; <100% means underutilization.

This clause allows the contract price to be increased if input costs rise beyond a certain limit, protecting the contractor from inflation.

Under Article 222(2) of the Constitution and Income Tax Act, allowances paid to Judges of High Court and Supreme Court are fully exempt from tax.

To stop loss (reach BEP), revenue must cover total costs. This can be done by increasing sales volume/price or reducing costs (Fixed or Variable).

The general rule is 30 days. For banking and financial institutions (NBFCs), the time limit is extended to 45 days.

Ideal standards represent the best possible performance under perfect conditions. They are rarely achievable and are used more for motivation than actual control.

In Budget 2023, the highest surcharge rate was reduced from 37% to 25% under the New Tax Regime to provide relief to high income earners.

Semi-variable costs have a fixed component (e.g., fixed line rental) and a variable component (e.g., charge per call/unit). Rent is Fixed. Material is Variable.